Prior to European colonization, the world was thickly populated with hundreds of independent states and vibrant regional state systems. Yet these states are typically excluded from traditional international relations scholarship, which has mostly focused on the European experience.This book provides a groundbreaking comparative analysis of non-Western states and state systems in the nineteenth century. Using an original data set on independent states during this period, Charles R. Butcher and Ryan D. Griffiths answer fundamental questions such as how many states there were, when they arose, and when they died, documenting the large number of states that were extinguished as a consequence of European colonialism. They explore the structure of nineteenth-century state systems in East Asia, South Asia, maritime Southeast Asia, and West Africa, examining the effects of war, trade, and interaction capacity. Through these case studies, Butcher and Griffiths provide novel perspectives on longstanding debates over state centralization and the choice between indirect and direct forms of rule. Shedding new light on the dynamics of non-Western interstate relations during the nineteenth century, Before Colonization reveals striking similarities between state systems across diverse historical settings.